10th Lecture : 14/10/14

Topic: Algae

1) Algae under kingdom protists because they are hard to define.

2) Algae different from plant because they don’t have vascular system.

3) Algae different from animal because they are autotrophs.

4) Algae can be unicellular or multicellular.

5) Algae contain chlorophyll which make them able to make food.

6) Algae live in aquatic or terrestial.

• Planktonic - suspended in aqueous environment
• Benthic - attached and living on the bottom of water
• Neutonic - at water-atmosphere interface

7) Most of the algae have cell wall composed of cellulose,  except for diatom which are made of silica. Sometime chitin or no cell wall.
8) Euglena have single flagella, chlorophyta have two or four polar flagella. For dinoflagellates, they have two flagella of different length and point of insertion.
9) All algae carry out asexual reproduction (fragmentation, spores, binary fission) but not all algae able to carry out sexual reproduction ( oogonia fuse with antheridia to form zygote).

10) Algae can divided into 5 phyla:

• Chrysophyta - diatoms
• Euglenophyta
• Pyrrhophyta - dinoflagellates
• Charophyta 
• Chlorophyta - Green

11) Chlorophyta

• green
• cellulose cell wall
• unicellular or multicellular
• chloropyll a or b
• store glucose polymer
• gave rise to terrestial plants

12) Rhodophyta ( changed to kingdom plantae ) 

• red
• mostly cellular
• cellulose/agar cell wall
• sexual reproduction'
• sstore glucose polymer
• chlorophyll a and d, phycocyaninm phycoerythrin
• red pigment absorb blue light

13) Phaeophyta ( changed to kingdom plantae )

• brown
• macroscopic
• chlorophyll a and c, xanthophylls
• multicellular
• cellulose or algin cell wall
• sexual reproduction
• store carbohydrate

14) Chrysophyta

• golden-brown algae
• produce domic acid
• chlorophyll a and c
• unicellular
• peptin and silica cell wall
• sexual reprodution
• store oil

15) Pyrrophyta

• unicellular plankton
• brown
• 2 flagella in perpendicular opposite grooves
• some produce neurotoxins
• can cause red tides
• chlorophyll a and c
• cellulose cell wall
• store starch

16) Euglenophyta

• green
• unicellular flagellated
• chlorophyll a and b, carotene
• can spontaneous lost chlorophyll in dark - heterotrophic organisms
• no cell wall
• rigid plasma membrane - pellicle
• no sexual reproduction
• store glucose polymer

17) Seaweed are marine benthic algae that can provide habitat for marine communities, and human food to make various products.

18) Phytoplankton are primary producers of the ocean because phytoplankton converts carbon dioxide into protoplasm to consumed by zooplankton.

19) Algal bloom will disrupt higher links of local food web and cause the production of neurotoxin.

Activitiy : Exchange our own notes with group members.

My own explorace:
1) Photoautotrophs are the orgainsms use the energy from light to carry out various cellular metabolic processes.
2) Endosymbionts are any organisms that lived within the body or cell or other organisms. Corals and dinoflagellates establish an symbiotic relationship where the dinoflagellates provide fixed carbon to corals while algae receive various nutrients from corals.
3) Members of Rhodophyta have a characteristic clear red or purplish color are due to the pigments called  phycoerythrin, which is well suited to absorb the blue light that penetrates deeper into water than the other colors of light.
4) Red tide is a phenomenon known as algal bloom when it is caused by dinoflagellates and the bloom takes on a red or brown colour. Some red tides are harmful because it associated with the production of neurotoxins. It kills many manatees every year.

Manatee

Reflection on this topic:

The mood in the class was quite down. The reasons may due to the Kenegaraan test but I think most of us were already in holiday mood, not study mood, hahaha..I think people shouldn't look down on these small tiny algae. An algae looked like nothing but a large number of algae can make things worse. Red tides which caused by large number of dinoflagellates can killed a lot of marine organisms, even the cute manatee. T.T 

9th Lecture: 10/10/2014

Topic: Test 1 and Protozoa

Notes:
1) Protozoa are eukaryotes, no chlorophyll, unicellular and lack of fruiting body.
2) Protozoa can be parasitic, pathogenic and predatory.
3) Protozoa can be aerobic, anaerobic and chemoheterotrophic
4) Protozoa are colourless and motile, but apicomplexa are not motile in mature form.
5) Protozoa can reproduce sexually and asexually by fission, budding and schizogony.
5) The microscopic of protozoa is 10 to 200 micrometer.
6) Protozoa occur singly or in colonies.
7) Protozoa can pigmented or not pigmented.
8) Protozoa may swim freely or in contact with a substratum. Some of the protozoa are capable of encystment.
9) Phylum:
      Saya-Sarcomastigophora
      Lupa- Labyrinthomorpha
      Akan- Apicomplexa
      Makan- Microspora
      Ayam- Ascetospora
      Mymy- Myxozoa
      Cili- Ciliophora
10) Dinoflagellates and Euglenoids are capable of photosythesis.
11) Protozoa obtain fruits through phagocytosis, pinocytosis, ingestion and absorption.
12) There are four major groups in protozoa: Archaezoa, Rhizopoda, Ciliophora, Apicomplexa.
13) Archaezoa are flagellated, parasitic and live in fresh water.
14) Rhizopoda are move by pseudopods, undergo phagocytosis and live in freshwater. Example:Amoeba
15) Ciliophora possess cilia, live in freshwater and marine, contain macronuclei( production of mRNA)and micronuclei (sexual reproduction) , having the presence of gullet ( ingest particulate materials), Example: Paramecium
16) Apicomplexa are primarily animal parasites, food absorbed through the outer wall and having complex life cycle. Example: Plasmodium

Activities: Test 1 and presentation about the best way to study protozoa.

My own explorace:
1) Substratum is a surface which cell attaches to, especially when the cells is growing or moving.
2) Chemotrophs are organisms that obtain energy by the oxidation of electron donors in their environment. They can be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
3) Encystment is the process of being enclosed by a cyst. Cyst is a resting or dormant stage of microorganisms. Cyst helps microorgsnisms to survive in unfavourable environmental condition in which the cell activities will be slowing down. Encystment also help the microbes to disperse easily from one host to another.
4) Pseudopods are temporary projections of eukaryotic cell membranes or unicellular protists.
5) Schizogony is the asexual reproduction of sporozoan by multiple fission of nucleus of the parasite followed by segmentation of the cytoplasm.
6) Most of the dinoflagellate are marine plankton but they are common found in freshwater as well. Most of them are photosynthetic.

Reflection on this topic:

After the test, I checked my notes and I found that I got some objectives wrong. I was getting mad because I did read and memorised the notes and I still got these wrong. Dr,Wan was right. We need to really understand everything well but not just memorised. I like the study method of Choy's group but I need him to record that song so that we able to sing it again and again. I also like the study method of our group: Fill in the blanks !! It is really work by fill in the blanks after we have studied the notes.

8th lecture: 7/10/14

Topic: Inclusions

Notes:
1) The main purpose of inclusions are to reserve deposits when it's plentyful and use it when it's deficient.
2) Metachromatic granules also known as volutin and used in the synthesis of ATP.
3) Metachromatic granules stain red with certain blue dyes.
4) Polysaccharide granules consist of glycogen and starch. Glycogen and starch can be differentiated by iodine. Glycogen granules will indicate reddish brown colour while starch will indicate blue colour.
5) Lipid inclusions act as storage material and can be revealed by Sudan dyes.
6) Sulfur granules derive energy by oxidising sulfur and sulfur-containing compounds.
7) Carboxysomes used for carbon dioxide fixation during photosynthesis.
8) Magnetosomes contain iron oxide that act like magnet. It is to protect the cell against hydrogen peroxide accumulation and to look for oxygen concentrated area.
9) Gas vesicles also known as gas vacuole. We called it gas vesicles when it is found in prokaryotes while in eukaryotes we called it gas vacuole. It is to provide buoyancy for aquatic prokaryotes and mostly found in photosynthetis group of prokaryotes.
10) Endospores are formed during harsh condition by some bacteria and it will germinate during suitable condition.
11) Endospores cannot be destroyed easily. They resist to chemicals, radiation, heat and acids.
12) Endospores contain substances that are absent from vegetative cells especially dipicolinic acid. This substance give all the resistance to endospores.
13) Although spores are resistant to dye, they still can be stained with malachite green.

Activities: Short Quiz and decide the adapoted microbes.

My own explorace:
1) Corynebacterium diphtheriae is the pathogenic bacterium that causes diphtheriae. Corynebacterium diphtheriae is a gram positive bacteria. Diphtheria is an upper respiratory illness. Diphtheria toxin is produced by Corynebacterium diphtheriae only when infected with a bacteriophage that integrates the toxin-encoding genetic elements into the bacteria.
2) Fungus uses energy to produce nutrients and spores.
3) Carbon dioxide fixation also called Calvin cycle and it is light-independent reaction. The key enzyme of this cycle is called RuBisCo.
4) Microbial nutrition are substances that microbes used to survive. If the source of carbon come from carbon dioxide and the source of energy come from sunlight, this organisms are called phototrophs.
5) Hydrogen peroxide is toxic and it is found in hair dyes. Human and aerobic microbes have the enzyme to neutralise hydrogen peroxide. The enzyme is celled peroxidase. But, peroxidase are not found in anaerobic microbes. Therefore, magnetosomes are found in anaerobic microbes to protect them against hydrogen peroxide accumulation.
6) Microaerophile is microorganism that requires oxygen to survive, but at a lower concentration than that contained in the atmosphere. A faculatative anaerobes is an organisms that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present, but is capable switch to anaerobic respiration if oxygen is absent. Too much oxygen is not toxic for faculatative anaerobes but too much oxygen is toxic for microaerophile.
7) Clostridium tetani is anaerobis, gram positive bacterium that causes tetanus.
8) Desiccation is the state of extreme dryness, or the process of extreme drying. Microbes that able to survive in desiccation are called xerophilic microbes. Xerophilic microbes are mostly archaea.
9) Clostridium perfringens cause gas gangrene which is a bacterial infection that produces gas in tissue in gangrene. Gas gangrene can caused myonecrosis ( muscle tissue death). The only treatment is through amputation of damaged arm or leg to control the spread of infection.
10) This is the video about the formation of endospores:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7zCQLITFEb0

Reflection on this topic:
I have learnt how strong is the endospore. I understand why clostridium botulinum have the potential to act as biological weapons. Endospores can be anywhere and everywhere.

7th Lecture: 3/10/14

Topic: External Structure of Prokaryote (part 2) and Internal Structure of Prokaryote

Notes:
1) Cell wall of bacteria is made up of peptidoglycan.
2) Cell wall of gram positive bacteria has thick peptidoglycan layer(90%) while cell wall of gram negative bacteria has few layers of peptidoglycan layer (10%).
3) Teichoic acid and lipoteichoic acid found on peptidoglycan layer and contribute to the acidicity of the gram positive cell wall.
4) The cell wall of gram negative bacteria consists of outer membrane.
5) Lipoprotein, lipopolysaccharide, phospholipid and porins are found on the outer membrane of gram negative bacteria.
6) The polysaccharide portion of LPS is O polysaccharide while the lipid portion is A lipid.
7) Atypical cell wall means no cell wall or little cell wall material.
8) Sterols are found on atypical cell wall which provide rigidity to the membrane.
9) Archaea cell wall has no peptidoglycan but contains pseudomureins.
10) Pseudomureins are linked by glycosidic bond beta(1,3) and consist of NAT.
11) Cell wall of Archaea is resistant to lysozymes and beta-lactam antibiotics but cell wall of bacteria is susceptible to lysozymes and beta-lactam antibiotics.
12) Plasma membrane acts as selectively permeable membrane. Hydrophilic ends are interact with water while hydrophobic ends are away from water.
13) Plasma membrane can synthesizes cell wall components, assists in DNA replication, carries on respiration and captures energy as ATP.
14) Plasmolysis: cells shrink ; Lysis: cells burst
15) Passive process not requires ATP and molecules are move along concentration.
16) Passive process includes simple diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion.
17) In simple diffusion, substances move from high solute concentration to low solute concentration until equilibrium is reached.
18) In osmosis, water move from high concentration to low concentration.
19) In facilitated diffusion, substances moved by transporter proteins from high to low concentration.
20) Active process requires ATP and molecules are move against concentration.
21) In Group translocation, molecules are chemically modified during passage across cytoplasmic membrane.
22) The nucleoid are single long circular molecules of double-stranded DNA and not membrane-bounded and no histones surrounded.
23) Plasmid consists small circular, double stranded DNA but not essential DNA material. It have the resistant to certain antibiotics.
24) Ribosomes are used for protein synthesis and 70S ribosomes are made up of small subunits 30S and large subunits 50S.
25) Group translocation is exclusively for prokaryote.

Activities: Labelled the image of structure of prokaryote and stated the functions of each structure.

My own explorace:
1) Heating is one of the examples of mechanical breakage.
2) Gram negative bacteria are stronger compared to gram positive bacteria because outer membrane provides a barrier to certain antibiotic, detergent and heavy metals.
3) Degrading enzymes are those enzymes that can degrade macromolecules to monomers.
4) Porin consists enzymes that can degrade antibiotics. For example, bacteria synthesise beta-lactamase to develop resistance to beta-lactam antibiotic.
5) Exotoxin are stronger compared to endotoxin because endotoxin only released during lysis of the cell.
6) Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a human pathogen that causes the disease mycoplasma pneumonia and resistants to antibacterial agents.
7) Why does 70S ribosome written as 50S and 30S? S stands for svedberg unit. The svedberg is a measure of time. That's mean S is not the size or amount but is the rate of sedimention when those ribosomes are centrifuged.

Reflection on this topic:
What I can conclude from this topic is the cell wall of prokaryote is very important. Dr Wan kept mentioned the importance of cell wall because cell wall of bacteria can used to differentiate the pathogenicity of different bacteria. Before that I still wondered why 70S ribosome written as 50S and 30S....so now I finally got the answer after this lecture. Thanks Dr Wan..^^